Chapter 17 and 18

Chapter 17

This chapter focused on the Atlantic revolutions. It reviewed the North American Revolution, French Revolution, Haitian Revolution, and the Spanish American Revolution. The commonality between these revolutions was "'popular sovereignty'...the authority to govern derived from the people rather than from God or from established tradition." (p. 500) Besides this commonality, the revolutions arose for different reasons. The following paragraphs will discuss the revolution of each area.

North American Revolution (1775-1787)

Those running the British colony did not see reason to not be part of Britain as it had "few drawbacks." (p. 502) Britain did not micro manager or over control North American colonies, so the colonies were not as strict as Europe was. Due to the lack o control from Britain, the British colonists revolted with Britain put more restrictions on them.

This revolution was different than the other revolutions because the people running the government and the government foundation did not change after the revolution. There was change in how much land one needed to vote which lead to more people being able to vote. With more voters that were not wealthy, the colonies became more equal than they had been (for white men).

The "U.S. Constitution -- with its Bill of Rights, checks and balances, separation of church and state and federalism -- was one of the first sustained efforts to put the political ideas of the Enlightenment into practice."

French Revolution (1789-1815)

This revolution started when part of France's "legal orders" "organized themselves as the National Assembly." (p. 504) This assembly made up about 98% of France. They went on to make "the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen." (p. 504)

Taxes were raised on everyone so the people were all treated equally and one could not "gorge themselves...while the hungry...goes in want of necessities." (p. 505) This notion was not liked and brought fighting to France.

After the death of two leaders, France started to see major changes. Streets were renamed, and people stopped using their names. More people involved themselves in politics, and this lead to people "belonging to a nation" rather than to "their local community." (p. 506) This also lead to less power from the Church.

Hatian Revolution (1791-1804)

Haiti had thee social groups before the revolution: the slaves, the white which included the rich and the "petits blancs...poor whites," (p. 507) and the "gens de couleur libres...free people of color." (p. 507-508)

The Haitian revolution started with "the Rights of Man" as this term "meant different things to different people." (p. 508) The whites did not believe that the slaves should be equal and this led to much fighting. The slaves fought over many years and eventually won. This revolt became known as "the only completely successful slave revolt in world history." (p. 509)

The slaves changed the countries name to "Haiti," and "all Haitians... (were) black". (p. 509) The country moved from a plantation nation to a self producing nation.

Spanish American Revolution (1810-1825)

Latin America did not have a strong "self-government" (p. 510) so this led to a revolt. The Latin Americans were fighting control from the Spanish and Portuguese. This revolution was "forced" onto Latin America when "the Portuguese royal family was exiled to Brazil." (p. 511)

The "differences of race, culture, and wealth" (p. 512) stopped Latin America from becoming united as one nation as Simon Bolivar wanted to do.

The North American and Spanish revolutions caused the nations to change. Initially the North American area was lacking that of Spanish South America. After the revolutions, North America gre and prospered while South America fell and became "unstable." (p. 513)

The revolutions gave birth to ideas that lead to the end of slavery, and the oppression of women.

Abolition of Slavery

The focus of "liberty and equality" (p. 514) in the American and French revolutions led to people recognizing that slavery was wrong. The growth in England and New England without slaves showed others that "slavery was not essential for economic progress." (p. 514) Britain was one of the strongest voices to end slavery. After Britain ended slavery many countries followed:

·   "most Latin American countries"

·   Brazil

·   Russia (serfdom)

·   eventually the U.S.

Many colored people did not prosper even though slavery ended. There was not land for the colored (except in Haiti). Many were forced into "sharecropping" (p. 514) where they were paid little and dependent on the crops owner. Without the free work of slaves, India and China imported workers into different areas "to work in mines, on sugar plantations, and in construction projects." (p. 515)

Though slaves were freed, they still were restricted. In the Caribbean they had no "local authority." (p. 515) In the U.S. slavery was abolished, but segregation took its place. Beyond segregation, they also were not allowed to vote and many were killed by lynching.

Feminist Beginnings

Women of the 1700's and 1800's started to advocate for women's rights. They were looked to end patriarchy and be considered the same as men. They wanted to have equality in "schools, universities, and the professions." (p. 521) Feminism started in the late 1800's, but it flourished in hte 19th century and is still a powerful force throughout the world.

Chapter 18

This chapter reviewed the Industrial Revolution and looked and how it changed Europe, the U.S., Russia, and Latin America.

Europe was equal to many other areas until the Industrial Revolution. It is thought that Europe was the first to overly expand because:

·   Their states were not united and competed with each other.

·   Europe needed more money so they made more deals with merchants which led to merchants competing to get new ideas.

·   Trade between Europe and other countries was larger than trade elsewhere.

Britain was the first European country to see great leaps during the Industrial Revolution. Some ideas on why this is are:

·   They were more open to other religions and had laws that "protected the interests of inventors." (p. 533)

·   They put the study of "science and technology" together rather than as separate areas. (p. 533)

·   They had an abundant "supply of coal and iron." (p. 533)

·   They were more apt to protect themselves from invasion since they were on an island. (p. 533)

In Europe there were three main classes: The "individual landowning aristocrats", the "middle class", and the "laboring class." The aristocrats owned large pieces of land; during the Industrial Revolutions they focused less on large amounts of land and looked more to industrialized work as "businessmen, manufacturers, and bankers." (p. 535) The middle class gained the most at this time as they already worked in the areas that were seeing great increases. The laboring class ended up with poor working and living conditions due to the increased capitalism with the revolution. The poor living and working conditions of the laboring class led to unions and law that helped them and their families. This in turn lead to cleaner water for them and parks.

In the U.S. Industrial Revolution pioneers wanted to allow everyone a chance to have the products that were now being mass produced. They created companies like "Sears Roebuck's and Montgomery Ward's" (p. 543) which brought clothes to anyone. The "Model T" was also created, and this brought cars to "ordinary people." (p. 543) Division of classes increased in the U.S. during this time and this led to unions, but no laws were made to help the lower class until "after 1900." (p. 545) "Progressive" helped the lower laboring classes get fairer laws, but they were thought to be "socialists" and this was "un-American." (p. 545)

Russia did not change their political system during the Industrial Revolution, so they stayed under the rule of one, the tsar. In Russia change came from the top of their political system rather than the people. The middle class grew, "but they were...dependent on the state for contracts and jobs." (p. 546) The work place was strict and "unsanitary" (p. 546) and the workers had no protection though they were "often erupt in...strikes." (p. 546) These conditions led some to create "an illegal Russian Social-Democratic Party." (p. 546) This party helped workers and led to a "strike (that)...created their own representative councils, called soviets." (p. 547) This strike created a revolution that "forced the tsar's regime to make...reforms." (p. 547) The tsar's reforms did not last and another strike happened; this led to a revolution in 1917 were a "socialist group" (p. 547) took power.

The Industrial Revolution did not lead Latin America to great change or wealth. They were able to take control of their country from those who had immigrated there. Their crops increased, but they did not prosper in other areas as Europe, U.S., and Russia did.

   

Chapter 14 and 15

Chapter 14

To open this chapter, let me say that I think it is appalling that someone would think that others deaths were "the 'good hand of God' at work." (p. 407) I find this thought process, about the deaths and killing of Native Americans, to be selfish and inhumane.

This chapter starts with talking about how Europe brought new food and animals to the Americas. The American foods were then brought back to the Eastern Hemisphere. It references how "potatoes helped" increase the human population of Europe, and how the foods from America were cheaper for the Europeans. Corn was brought to Africa. Silver trade from Mexico started.

It then talked about the interbreeding of different races and how Spaniards breed with Indians. A person of this mix of races was called a "mestizo" and they were often "looked down on" by Spaniards as they were "illegitimate." (p. 411) I find this disturbing also. I do not understand how people can find others to be less than them because they are born of a different race or out of wedlock. Whether mixed or not, or married or not a person is a person.

The chapter then discusses Atlantic slave trade. Slaves were used to grow sugar in the Caribbean as the Native Americans of the area had died or left. The introduction led to intermingled races in the Caribbean as peoples procreated. British North America did not see the intermingled races from the slave trade as the European women had come to North America.

The Russian and Chinese Empires are discussed next in the chapter. As the Russian Empire grew it forced conquered people to pay "yasak." The conquered were expected to become Christian, and they were forced to give us their hunting and pastoral life styles. (p. 419) The Chinese Qing Dynasty enlarged its empire to defend itself. It wanted to avoid Mongol and Russian take over. The areas that the Qing Dynasty took over were ran by "the Court of Colonial Affairs". The Qing Dynasty did not force the Chinese beliefs or religion onto the areas that they conquered. (p. 423)

The Moghal and Ottoman Empires where then reviewed. Akbar, a Mughal Indian emperor, tolerated Hindus and those from other faiths. He married Hindu princesses and "did not require them to convert to Islam." (p. 424) He held back "the more military Islamic ulama." He stopped "the special tax (jizya) on non-Muslims." (p. 424) A later emperor, Aurangzed, did not agree with Akvars rules, or lack of them. He changed and added many laws, and started the jizya again. This reversal led to an unstable empire that would be taken over by the British later. The Ottoman Empire expansion saw different results in areas that it took over. In Anatolia, many conquered peoples "converted...to Islam." (p. 427) In the Balkans very few peoples converted to Islam. "Many...Christians...welcomed (the) Ottoman conquest." (p. 427) There were not taxes as much as they were by other empires. They were not required to convert to Islam. There was a downside though, the "devshirme" where communities had to give "young boys" that would be "trained for...civil administration or military service."

Chapter 15

This chapter discussed the commerce of the Portuguese, Spain and Philippines, and East India. It also reviewed the types of trading that were done: silver, fur, and slave trade.

Portuguese made a "trading post empire" on the Indian Ocean. They "tried to require all merchant vessels to purchase a 'cartaz'...and to pay duties." The cartax was not successful so they started to sell "their shipping services because they (couldn't)...sell their goods." Since they could not control the sea trades, they "settled in Asian and African ports." (p. 437) "Spain took over islands that later" became the Philippine Islands. They did this to keep up with "the riches of the East". (p. 437) The British and Dutch created "private trading companies" on the Indian Ocean. The companies were called the "British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company". (p. 439) The Dutch took complete control of "the trade in nutmeg, mace, and cloves." The British traded with Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras." (p. 440)

Silver Trading: Silver was traded from Mexico to the Philippines and "was the first direct and sustained link between the Americas and Asia." (p. 442) A Chinese tax on silver lead to the cost of silver going up. Silver helped many become wealthy, but it also separated many families and killed many as the mining process was dangerous and unhealthy. When the value "of silver dropped" so did Spain's economy. (p. 443) Japan "used silver-generated profits to defeat...rival...lords and unify the country." "To (get) the silver needed to pay...taxes (Chinese peoples) had to sell (their) labor or their products." Europe became the "middlemen" of silver trade between America and Asia. (p. 444)

Fur Trade: As populations grew in Europe, animals with fur in the Americas decreased due to the demand of fur. Beavers were "near extinction." Deer were "seriously diminishing." (p. 446) The fur trading allowed some Native American populations to grow and profit. The downside for them was the exposure to new diseases, dependence on European goods, guns, and alcohol. (p. 447)

Atlantic Slave Trade: Slavery in the Americas was different from earlier slavery. It was: larger, "based on plantation agriculture," "dehumanizing", they had no rights or freedoms, and it was race based. (p. 450) African peoples were traded as slaves as if they were a spice or other good. The fact that they were humans was lost. The African leaders started off trading other Africans that were in prison, but eventually their peoples started being taken and they could not stop the trading even though they wanted to. Some leaders were tricked onto boat, "made...drunk" (p. 453) and taken as slaves.

Chapter 11

This chapter talked about how Islam. It reviewed how Islam was created, the changes it went through, and how it spread. "The Kaaba, the most prominent religious shrine in Arabia was in Mecca." (p. 303) The town of Mecca became popular and was a place where many went to worship. Arabia had the Persian Empire on one side and the Byzantine Empire on the other; this put Arabia in the middle of trade and in the middle of Judaism and Christianity. Many thought that Arabia would become Jewish or Christian due to its whereabouts, but they were incorrect.

Muhammad Ibn Abduliah of Mecca became "Allah's messenger to the Arabs," (p. 300) and taught from the Quran as the followers of Allah believed that they "had to submit" to Allah to be "in paradise after death." (p. 305) The Quran did not agree with the lives of those in Mecca and had its own message to the people. The Quran wanted the peoples of Arabia to live with "solidarity, equality, (and) concern for the poor." (p. 305) The Quran taught five messages "known as the Pillars of Islam:"

1. "Absolute monotheism and final revelation"

2. "Prayer...fives times a day" at specific times and "facing...Mecca"

3. "Give wealth to maintain the community and to help the needy"

4. "Month of fasting"

5. "Pilgrimage to Mecca" (p. 305-306)

Muhammad's teachers were not viewed positively with "the wealthy and ruling families of Mecca" (p. 306) and his followers moved to "Yathrib," which is thought to be a "turning point in early history of Islam." (p. 306) Yathrib later became "Medina". Here, Islam became its own religion and was "open to all," (p. 307) and Muhammad became ruler of this new religion.

After Muhammad's death, the Arabs conquered areas in Spain, India, Europe, China, and North Africa. They were extending their trade area and the reach of their religion. The Arabs were open to other religions, but they were not actively trying to convert others to their religion, but restrictions and taxes were put on other religions. There were perks for others converting to Muslim:

·   They could get out of slavery or prison

·   They could avoid "Jizya, a tax imposed on non-Muslims"

·   They did not have to hide religion during trade

·   They were able to reach "official positions" (p. 310) that non-Muslims could not

"Political and social conflicts" arose as Islam spread. Many had their own interpretation and ideas of how the Islamic World should function. Two of the main conflicts of ideas was between "the Sunni Muslims" and "the Shia." (p. 311) The Sunni thought "that the caliphs were rightful political and military leaders," and the Shia thought that "leadership...should derive from the line of Ali and his son Husayn, blood relative of Muhammud." (p. 311) As time went on, some wanted to define what it meant "to be Muslim." (p. 313) It was found that being Muslim meant to have "correct behavior" as written in Sharia and that "direct and personal experience of the divine" and that it was necessary to give up "the material world." (p. 313)

Islamic women had some freedoms, but also restrictions. They were in charge of their property, and could choose to divorce. In early Islam women could hold political positions and could pray "in Mosques," (p. 315) and they did not have to wear veils. More restrictions were implemented with the growth of Islam. There was: "veiling and seclusion" and "separate quarter within the homes." (p. 315) Even though women were more oppressed, they did have the option to be a "teacher of the faith...mullahs." (p. 316)

The Islam religion was spreading, but they no longer had their own land area. Strayer asks what held the religion together and states that there was a "common commitment to Islam...Ulanh passed on the core teachings of the faith...religions order of the Sufis...(and) they were able to incorporated other religions into Islam." (p. 323-324)

As Muslims grew there were able to make learn new skills. They were able to create "large trading practice." (p. 325) They learned how to get water from hills. They "developed algebra as a...mathematical discipline". They started "work on astronomy and optics," and they started "a...tradition in medicine and pharmacology." (p. 325-326)

Chapter 12

This chapter looked at the history of the pastoral nomads. First it distinguished pastoral communities and civilizations from agricultural communities and civilizations. Then, Strayer looked at how the pastoral people's ideas helped them to build a large empire. The chapter then reviewed how the Mongol Empire came to be, and how it was able to withstand and conquer other empires. Strayer then compared how the Mongols invaded China, Persia, and Russia. The chapter ended with reviewing how the Mongols changed the "world economy" and how it spread the plague. (p. 354)

Below is a list of items that distinguished pastoral communities and civilizations from agricultural communities and civilizations:

·   They had "less productive economies"

·   They "needed large grazing areas (to)... support...smaller population"

·   They "lived in small...scatter encampments"

·   They organized themselves in kinship-based groups"

·   "Women (had) a higher status, fewer restrictions, and greater role in public life"

·   They lived a very mobile life and "shifted their herds in regular patterns." (p. 334-336)

Chapter 8, 9, 10

Chapter 8

This chapter reviewed the roads that people used to trade in Eurasia, the Indian Ocean, and the Sahara. Eurasia used Silk Roads for trading; the Indian Ocean used Sea Roads for trading; and the Sahara used Sand Roads for trading.

On the Silk Roads in Eurasia traders would sell and buy items as if on an assembly line; items would pass from one person to another which lead to faster delivery of goods. The Silk Roads reached from China, through the Taklamankan Desert, and then into India, Persia, and Arabia. "Eurasia is often divided into inner and outer zones that represent...different environments". (p. 220) The items being traded depended on where they originated. The outer Eurasia climate was warm which lead to agriculture trade. North Eurasia's climate was harsh and dry and lead to herding animals being traded. The Northern Grasslands/steppes climate was semi-arid and forest which lead to "hides, furs, livestock, wool, and amber" (p. 220) being traded.

While the Silk Roads traded upscale items, they also traded religions and disease. Religions, like goods, moved through the Silk Road. Buddhism, in particular, reached areas that it had not previously, and Eurasia's religions were also influenced by religions that they encountered. Trading on the Silk Road also brought diseases from other areas, such as: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, black death.

The Sea Roads of the Indian Ocean "stretched from southern China to Eastern Africa.: (p. 225) While the Silk Roads traded upscale items, the Sea Roads traded "more bulk goods...for max markets." (p. 225). Some of the items traded on the Sea Roads were: porcelain from China, spices from southeast Asia, cotton and pepper from India, and ivory and gold from Africa.

The Sand Roads went across the Sahara in west Africa and helped good reach the Mediterranean. What was traded on the Sand Roads varied by region. The north African coast traded "cloth, glassware, weapons, books." (p. 234) The Sahara traded "copper and salt." (p. 234) The south traded agriculture, textiles, metal goods, and gold." (p. 234)

Chapter 9

Chapter 9 discussed China and how it made a presence in the world again, and it also discussed how Korea, Vietnam, and Japan were impacted by China.

The Tang and Song dynasties rebuilt China by using "a state structure (that had) six major ministries -- personnel, finance, rites, army, justice, and public works." (p. 244)  With the structure in place China was able to increase the population two times over and improve their agricultural practices. Their iron production grew and they created ways to print, which lead to the world's first printed books.

Though the country was growing and changing during the Song Dynasty, it's views of women were still limiting. Women were looked down upon if they remarried, and were subject to "foot binding." Foot binding was done for "beauty...delicacy, and reticence," but it was painful and often broke women's feet. (p. 246)

China created a "tribute system" with the northern Nomads. This system is "a set of practices that required non-Chinese authorities to acknowledge Chinese superiority and their own subordinate place in a Chinese-centered world order." (p. 249)  When one made a tribute to the emperor, they were allowed to trade in the Chinese markets. Though the system was made to benefit China it often led to unofficial agreements that allowed the other state to have the upper hand.

Korea particiapted in the tribute system and adopted some Chinese influences. Some Koreans went to school in China, and Korea used Chinese school books. China also put more restrictions on women in Korea.

Vietnam was also a part of the tribute systems with China, and part of it was also ruled by China for a period of time. The Vietnamese used Chinese school books, and the Chinese language was spoken instead of the indigenous ones by the elite. Vietnam did gain their state back, but they chose to use some Chinese foundations. They had "emperors, (claimed) the Mandate of Heaven (and used) Chinese court rituals." (p. 255) Though Vietnam used many Chinese foundations, they chose to keep some of their own outside of the elite, such as "distinct language" (p. 256) and less restrictions on women.

Japan was not connected to China like Korea and Vietnam were, so they were able to make more of their own choices with less Chinese influence. Some did practice Buddhism, but indigenous beliefs were still used. The used "the Chinese writing system," (p. 257) but they still had their own style of writing, and Japanese women were nto restricted by any Chinese beliefs.

China's ideas often reached other areas. "Papermaking...spread to Korea and Vietnam". "Printing ... reaching Korea." "Gunpowder...became available in Europe (and) the magnetic compass" helped many boaters find their way through the Indian Ocean. (p. 259-260) While China's goods and ideas reached other places, they received goods and ideas also. They learned how to make "cotton and sugar from India," found a new rice from Vietnam, and a Buddhist monk that "identified soils...that..produced a purple flame" started the idea of "Chinese experiments" that lead to gunpowder. (p. 260)

Chapter 10

This chapter looked at European Christendom in western Eurasia and how this area became two different areas based on religion. The Byzantine Empire became Byzantium and practiced Eastern Orthodox Christianity which became Catholicism, and the western area practice Latin Christendom which became Christianity. In Byzantium the church and state were combined, which is called "caesaropapism." (p. 273) Byzantium had a big trade market and their religion reached "the Balkans and Russia." (p. 276) The Western Christendom's were invaded year after year and were not in a good area for trading. They eventually forested their trees, expanded their agriculture, and started trading on "the Baltic coast." (p. 284)

The Crusade, "holy wars that were undertaken at God's command and authorized by the pope" changed parts of Europe. (p. 286)  Those in the Crusades kills Muslims and Jews. After the Crusades Western Christendom in spread to "Spain, Sicily, and the Baltic region." (p. 288) Europeans found new Asian goods and "learned (how to make) sugar...using slave labor", which later came to the Americas." (p. 288)

As the Europeans entered global trade they: found more goods that they desired, learned to work with different religions, and make new "technological breakthroughs." (p. 290)  Some of their new technologies were: "a heavy wheeled plow...three-field crop rotation...a new type of windmill... (and they) experimented with perpetual-motion machines." (p. 290-291)